Caius marius biography

Roman general and statesman (c. –86 BC)

This article is setback the Roman statesman who was seven times consul and ostensibly reformed the army. For wreath son, see Gaius Marius honourableness Younger.

Gaius Marius (Latin:[ˈɡaːiʊsˈmariʊs]; c.&#;&#;BC – 13 January 86&#;BC) was out Roman general and statesman. Conqueror of the Cimbric and Jugurthine wars, he held the reign of consul an unprecedented heptad times. Rising from a consanguinity of smallholders in a neighbourhood called Ceraetae in the community of Arpinum, Marius acquired government initial military experience serving reap Scipio Aemilianus at the Blockade of Numantia in &#;BC. Significant won election as tribune freedom the plebs in BC enthralled passed a law limiting gentle interference in elections. Barely choice praetor in &#;BC, he monitor became the governor of New to the job Spain where he campaigned break the rules bandits. On his return unearth Spain he married Julia, interpretation aunt of Julius Caesar.

Marius attained his first consulship terminate &#;BC and became the head of state of Roman forces in Realm, where he brought an chain to the Jugurthine War. Next to &#;BC Rome faced an hit-and-run attack by the Cimbri and Teutones, and the comitia centuriata vote for Marius consul for a following time to face this recent threat. Marius was consul ever and anon year from to &#;BC, tell he defeated the Teutones shipshape Aquae Sextiae and the Cimbri at Vercellae. However, Marius acceptable political setbacks during his ordinal consulship in &#;BC and later entered a period of semi-retirement from public life.

The Nation fell into crisis with prestige outbreak of the Social Conflict in 91 BC, in which Marius fought with limited come after. He then became embroiled thump a conflict with the Authoritative general Sulla which resulted fall apart his exile to Africa rejoicing 88&#;BC. Marius returned to Italia from Carthage during the Conflict of Octavius, seized Rome, celebrated began a bloody reign hook terror in the city which culminated in him being choose consul a seventh time countryside then dying within weeks model assuming this seventh consulship, regulate 86&#;BC.

In the 19th c Marius was credited with probity so-called Marian reforms, including loftiness shift from militia levies competent a professional soldiery; improvements come to get the pilum (a kind leverage javelin); and changes to nobility logistical structure of the Papistic army. Twenty-first-century historians generally process the notion as "a set up of modern scholarship."^[3]

Life

Early career

Marius was born in Cereataec.&#;&#;BC, a tiny village near the town for Arpinum in south-east Latium.^[5] Dignity town had been conquered hard the Romans in the harden 4th century&#;BC and was at the start given Roman citizenship without balloting rights (civitas sine suffragio). Matchless in &#;BC, thirty years already his birth, did the metropolitan receive full citizenship. Although Biographer claims that Marius's father was a labourer, this is nearly certainly false since Marius esoteric connections with the nobility on the run Rome, he ran for neighbourhood office in Arpinum, and blooper had marriage relations with honourableness local nobility in Arpinum, the sum of of which when taken harvester indicate that he was inhabitant into a locally important brotherhood of equestrian status. While numberless of the problems he naive during his early career cultivate Rome show the difficulties dump faced a "new man" (novus homo) in being accepted minor road the stratified upper echelons attain Roman society, Marius – unchanging as a young man – was not poor or flush middle-class; he was most undoubtedly born into inherited wealth, gained most likely from large utter holdings. In fact, his family's resources were definitely large close to support not just lag member of the family hole Roman politics, but two: Marius's younger brother, Marcus Marius,^[a] further entered Roman public life.

In &#;BC, Marius joined the personal mass of Scipio Aemilianus as chaste officer for the expedition colloquium Numantia. It is unclear inevitably or not Marius was even now present and serving in Numantia with the previous commander in the way that Aemilianus arrived. While serving trade the army at Numantia, empress military aptitude brought him with reference to the attention of Scipio Aemilianus. According to Plutarch, during far-out conversation after dinner, when blue blood the gentry conversation turned to generals crucial someone asked Scipio Aemilianus pivot the Roman people would manna from heaven a worthy successor to him, the younger Scipio gently valve on Marius's shoulder, saying "Perhaps this is the man".^[13]

It would seem that even at that early stage of his personnel career, Marius had ambitions acquire a political career in Riot. He was elected on primacy basis of his accomplishments, unchanging though he was not rest by sight to the electors, as one of the 24 special military tribunes. After choice, he likely served Quintus Caecilius Metellus Balearicus on the Balearic Islands, helping him win a-one triumph. Next, Marius possibly ran for the quaestorship after disappearance an election for local divulge in Arpinum. He may possess stood for local office restructuring a means of gaining apprehension back home, and lost work a local competitor. It evolution possible, however, that Marius under no circumstances ran for the quaestorship slate all, jumping directly to man of the people tribune. He likely participated trudge the major Roman victory scoff at the Battle of the Isère River in &#;BC, which forevermore cemented Roman control over austral Gaul.

In &#;BC, Marius was exchanged as a plebeian tribune champion the following year. He won with the support of say publicly Metelli, specifically Lucius Caecilius Metellus Dalmaticus. While Plutarch says justness Metelli were one of king family's hereditary patrons, this haw be a latter-day exaggeration. Have round was not uncommon for coming consuls to campaign for their candidates for the tribunate obtain lower the possibility of resistance tribunes exercising their vetoes.

Plutarch relates that against the wishes adequate his patrons, he pushed try a law that restricted prestige interference of the wealthy adjust elections. In the s, vote by ballot had been alien in elections for choosing magistrates, passing laws and deciding acceptable cases, replacing the earlier arrangement of oral voting. The prosperous continued to try to emphasis the voting by inspecting ballots, and Marius passed a prohibited narrowing the passages down which voters passed to cast their votes in order to suppress outsiders from harassing the electors or seeing who was favorite for. It is not dim-witted, however, whether Plutarch's narrative anecdote properly reflects how controversial that proposal in fact was; Speechmaker, writing during the Republic, describes this lex Maria as completely straightforward and uncontroversial. Plutarch move that he then alienated rectitude plebs by vetoing a reward expanding the grain dole, nevertheless it is more likely zigzag Plutarch misinterpreted Marius as prohibition attempts to interfere in goodness existing grain provisions.

Soon thereafter, pustule &#;BC, Marius stood for righteousness aedileship and lost. It seems clear that by this halt in its tracks, due to the enormous fiscal difficulties that any prospective aedile would have to shoulder, Marius had either amassed or was availed of significant financial funds. This loss was at minimal in part due to significance enmity of the Metelli. Form &#;BC he barely won choosing as praetor for the pursuing year, coming in last, splendid was promptly accused of ambitus (electoral corruption). Being accused take possession of electoral corruption was common textile the middle and late Federation and details of the probation are sketchy or apocryphal. Marius, however, was able to carry all before one acquittal on this charge, take spent an uneventful year gorilla praetor in Rome, likely monkey either praetor peregrinus or brand president of the corruption dull. In &#;BC, Marius's imperium was prorogued and he was twist and turn to govern the highly worthy province of Further Spain (Latin: Hispania Ulterior) pro consule, whither he engaged in some degrade of minor military operation around clear brigands from untapped descent areas. He likely governed queen province for two years hitherto returning to Rome late be next to &#;BC with his personal holdings greatly enlarged.

He received no victory on his return, but flair did marry Julia, the aunty of Julius Caesar. The Julii Caesares were a patrician lineage, but at this period have the or every appea to have found it do something to advance beyond the praetorship into the consulship. The Julii had done so only on a former occasion in the 2nd century, love &#;BC. The match was worthwhile to both sides: Marius gained respectability by marrying into copperplate patrician family and the Julii received a great injection sign over energy and money. Sources second-hand goods unclear on whether Marius connubial the annual race of find praetors for the consulship, on the contrary it is likely that pacify failed to be elected benefit from least once.

Subordinate to Metellus

The Jugurthine War started in &#;BC entitlement to "Roman exasperation with birth ambitions of Jugurtha", a Denizen king who had killed realm half-brothers, massacred Italians in cap civil war against them, trip bribed many prominent Romans observe support him in the Legislature. After the start of state of war, the first army sent bash into Numidia was apparently bribed deal with withdraw and the second blue was defeated and forced joke pass under the yoke mosquito humiliation. These debacles eroded reliance in the ability of honesty aristocracy to adequately manage alien affairs.

While Marius had seemingly disciplined with the Caecilii Metelli meanwhile his time as tribune become more intense praetor, the Metelli did distant seem to hold this hole against him so much despite the fact that to pass over him cheerfulness selection as legate in description opening phases of the Jugurthine War. In &#;BC, likely get trapped in improve his chances for interpretation consulship, Marius joined then-consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus in his crusade against Jugurtha. In Sallust's hold up account of Metellus's campaign, maladroit thumbs down d other legates are mentioned, desirable Marius was probably Metellus's higher ranking subordinate and right-hand man. Metellus was using Marius's strong soldierly experience, while Marius was increase his position to stand care the consulship.

During the Battle incline the Muthul, Marius's actions likely saved the army of Metellus from annihilation. Jugurtha had sink the Romans off from significance River Muthul where they desirable to refill their water fall-back. The Romans had to challenge Jugurtha in the desert vicinity the Numidian light cavalry locked away an advantage. The Numidian horsemen scattered the Romans into little detachments and soon had state of the battlefield. Each vocation of Romans was fighting confound survival independently. At this disappointing Marius re-organized a few detachments and led a column go in for 2, men through the Numidians to link up with Metellus. Together they led their joe public against the Numidian infantry who occupied a hill. After arrival at control of the hill Marius and Metellus led their troops body against the rear of greatness Numidian cavalry. The Romans gained the initiative and the Numidians had no choice but brand withdraw.

Standing for the consulship

By &#;BC, Marius expressed his desire access stand for consul. Metellus blunt not give Marius his recommendati to return to Rome, by all accounts advising Marius to wait waiting for Metellus's son was elected (who was at the time one twenty, signifying a campaign decades in the future). Undeterred, Marius began to campaign for rectitude consulship. Sallust claims that that was catalysed, in part, hard a fortune-teller in Utica who "declared that a great take marvellous career awaited him; authority seer accordingly advised him, na‹ve in the gods, to drag out what he had radiate mind and put his try to the test as regularly as possible, predicting that bighead his undertakings would have dialect trig happy issue".

Marius soon earned loftiness respect of the troops impervious to his conduct towards them, vile his meals with them move proving he was not worried to share in any annotation their labours. He also won over the Italian traders past as a consequence o claiming that he could make out Jugurtha in a few generation with half of Metellus's encampment. Both groups wrote home injure praise of him, suggesting go he could end the conflict quickly, unlike Metellus, who was pursuing a policy of fastidiously subduing the countryside.

During the frost of and &#;BC, a join of Roman soldiers serving although the garrison of Vaga was ambushed and cut down wellnigh to a man. The fort commander, one Titus Turpilius Silanus, a client of Metellus, escapee unharmed. Marius allegedly urged Metellus to sentence Silanus to dying on charges of cowardice, on the other hand then turned on Metellus, enmity that the sentence was lopsided and overly harsh. Marius extremely sent letters back to Scuffle claiming that Metellus had turning enamoured with the unlimited wits associated with his imperium. Metellus, wary of an increasingly in the sulks and resentful subordinate, permitted Marius to return to Rome. According to Plutarch, he returned board barely enough time to do it back for the consular elections; but according to Sallust, with enough time to hefty canvass for votes.

With growing national pressure towards a quick shake-up over Jugurtha and equestrian opposition toward the senate's conduct imbursement the war, Marius was picked out consul for &#;BC, campaigning disagree with Metellus's apparent lack of nimble action against Jugurtha, with Lucius Cassius Longinus as his fluency. The senate prorogued Metellus's walk in Numidia, thereby preventing Marius from assuming command. Marius got around this by inducing brainstorm ally of his, then-tribune Book Manlius Mancinus, to have honesty concilium plebis override the Senate's decision and give him honesty command. Metellus refused to in the flesh hand over command to Marius and returned to Rome. Walk into his return, the senate progressing Metellus a triumph and decency agnomenNumidicus.

Command in Numidia

Main article: Jugurthine War

Seeking troops to bolster decency forces in Numidia and increase twofold his promised quick victory, Marius found it difficult to enlist from Rome's traditional source do admin manpower, property-holding men. Except handset emergencies, normal practice in illustriousness middle republic was only make a victim of allow property-owning citizens to hire in the legions; this the fifth month or expressing possibility have been related to Tiberius Gracchus's reforms which would keep, by giving more people repair land, made more men suited to serve in the armed force. While the senate allowed Marius to conscript men normally, sharptasting preferred instead to request volunteers, especially among discharged veterans (evocati), with promises of victory status plunder. He also recruited volunteers from men without property, say publicly capite censi. With more fortification mustering in southern Italy, Marius sailed for Africa, leaving crown cavalry in the hands encourage his newly elected quaestor, Lucius Cornelius Sulla.

Marius found that absolution the war was more burdensome than he had previously boasted. Jugurtha was fighting a freedom war, and it appeared renounce no strategy would work more advantageous than Metellus's strategy of contradictory Jugurtha local reinforcement and hind. Marius arrived comparatively late make the addition of &#;BC but still fought pivotal won a battle near Cirta (modern Constantine, Algeria). At picture end of he surprised Jugurtha by a dangerous desert foot it to Capsa in the inaccessible south where, after the zone surrendered, he killed all excellence adult males, enslaved the blow survivors, and razed the hamlet, distributing the loot to fulfil soldiers. Keeping up the burden, he drove Jugurtha's forces southerly and westwards into Mauretania. Marius had been supposedly unhappy excel receiving the dissolute and profligate Lucius Cornelius Sulla as rulership quaestor, but Sulla proved a-ok highly competent officer and was well liked by the men.

Meanwhile, Jugurtha was trying to reach the summit of his father-in-law king Bocchus spick and span Mauretania to join him access the war against the Book. In , Marius marched army far to the westbound, capturing a fortress near authority river Molochath. Unfortunately, this momentum brought him near the dominions of Bocchus, finally provoking greatness Mauretanian into action; in picture deserts just west of Line, Marius was taken by awe by a combined army a variety of Numidians and Mauretanians under nobility command of the two rival kings. For once, Marius was unprepared for action and dependably the melee all he could do was form defensive enwrap. The attack was pressed overtake Mauretanian and Gaetulian horsemen lecturer for a time Marius arena his main force found living soul besieged on a hill, eventually Sulla and his men were on the defensive on concerning hill nearby. The Romans managed to hold off the conflicting until evening and the Africans retired. The next morning case dawn the Romans surprised rectitude Africans' insufficiently guarded camp charge completely routed the Numidian–Mauretanian host. Marius then marched east identify winter quarters in Cirta. Character African kings harried the extend with light cavalry, but were beaten back by Sulla, whom Marius had put in person in charge of the cavalry. It was by now evident that Malady would not defeat Jugurtha's member of the undergrou tactics through military means. So, Marius resumed negotiations with Bocchus, who, though he had coupled in the fighting, had call yet declared war.

Ultimately, Marius reached a deal with Bocchus whereby Sulla, who was friendly look into members of Bocchus's court, would enter Bocchus's camp to collect Jugurtha as a hostage. Necessitate spite of the possibility criticize treachery on the Mauritanian's objects, Sulla agreed; Jugurtha's remaining series were massacred, and he was handed over in bonds to Sulla by Bocchus. Dust the aftermath, Bocchus annexed interpretation western part of Jugurtha's sovereign state and was recognised as tone down ally of Rome.^[70] Jugurtha was thrown into an underground lock-up (the Tullianum) in Rome, limit ultimately died after gracing Marius's triumph in &#;BC.

Sulla and Marius, after the triumph, disputed who received credit for capturing Jugurtha. As Sulla was acting significance Marius's subordinate, under Roman habit, the credit was Marius's; Subshrub and his noble allies, nevertheless, focused on Sulla's direct promise to discredit Marius's victory. According to Plutarch, this was "the first seed" of their "incurable hatred".^[73]

Putative reforms to the military

Main article: Marian reforms

Marius has, clear up modern scholarship starting from primacy s in Germany, repeatedly back number attributed with broad reforms impediment the military during his consulships between and &#;BC. The incorrect narrative is that after pure series of manpower shortages,^[74] Marius received a dispensation to muster volunteers from the poorest returns class, the proletarii, for high-mindedness war against Jugurtha in &#;BC. There is, however, very diminutive evidence that Italy's population strike down during the second century, deviate any major reforms to depiction Roman army occurred in representation second century, or that Marius was responsible; specialists now more and more dismiss these "Marian reforms" importation a "construct of modern scholarship".^[78][79]

The recruitment of proletarii in , documented in Sallust, seems communication have been a one-time affair: the volunteers were discharged evince their return from the conflict and Marius, upon assuming right-hand lane against the Cimbri, took be in conflict command of a consular bevy in northern Italy levied get in touch with the traditional manner. There pour no indications that open staffing of volunteers changed the general composition of the legions title later texts indicate that dignity Romans continued to raise apogee of their armies by conscription.^[82] The armies of the equate Republic still were predominantly fatigued from rural populations. The legend that the army's domination vulgar poor volunteers, who in carry out trial of riches and retirement largess became the clients of their generals, who then used those armies to overthrow the state 2, is now rejected.^[84]

Other reforms attributed to Marius include the repudiation of the citizen cavalry topmost light infantry, a redesign show signs of the pilum, a standardised raptor standard for all legions, extra the substitution of the accessary for the maniple. There practical little evidence for the destruction of the citizen cavalry ride light infantry by the cheeriness century&#;BC, as they are tranquil attested in evidence.^[85] If Marius redesigned the pilum, archaeological finds indicate his design was erelong discarded.^[86] Literary evidence indicates divagate eagle standards continued to co-exist through the late republic warmth other traditional animal standards plus the ox and wolf.^[b] Last of all, there is no ancient substantiate that Marius introduced the cohort; Sallust's narrative gives the burgle attestation of the maniple fasten &#;BC under Metellus Numidicus' command.^[89]

Changes to logistical arrangements and practice, the muli Mariani ("Marius's mules") of common historiography, were customary practice among Roman generals: pursuit victory, they generally sought justness speed advantages of operating evade large baggage trains and comprise ensure that their men were well-trained for combat.

Cimbri and Teutones

Main article: Cimbrian War

In &#;BC grand migrating Germanic tribe called picture Cimbri appeared in Gaul nearby routed the Roman army up under Marcus Junius Silanus. That defeat reduced Roman prestige queue resulted in unrest among grandeur Celtic tribes recently conquered chunk the Romans in southern Constructive. In the consul Lucius Solon Longinus was completely defeated hunk the Tigurini, and the known surviving officer (one Gaius Popillius, son of the consul manager ) had saved what was left only by surrendering bisection the baggage and suffering illustriousness humiliation of having his blue "pass under the yoke". Leadership next year, &#;BC, another legate, Quintus Servilius Caepio, marched consent to Gaul with a new drove to salvage the situation. Caepio was prorogued into the jiffy year and the new deputy for &#;BC, Gnaeus Mallius Maximus, was also assigned to meridional Gaul with another army. Caepio's disdain for Mallius – spiffy tidy up new man like Marius critical remark a hunger for glory – made it impossible for them to cooperate.

The Cimbri and preference tribe called the Teutones arised on the Rhône, and piece Caepio was on the westerly bank he refused to come forward to the aid of Mallius on the east. The Governing body was unable to induce Caepio to cooperate with Mallius, which proved both generals' undoing. Miniature the Battle of Arausio (modern Orange), the Cimbri overran Caepio's legions with massively overwhelming everywhere. Caepio's routed men crashed response Mallius's troops, which led differentiate both armies being pinned destroy the Rhône and annihilated in and out of the numerically dominant Cimbrian warriors. News of this defeat reached Rome just shortly after Marius completed the campaign against Jugurtha successfully.

The Republic, altogether lacking generals who had recently concluded martial campaigns successfully, took the disallow step of electing Marius in absentia for a second consulship in three years. While coronate election was not unprecedented, chimp Quintus Fabius Maximus had antique elected for consecutive consulships lecture it was not unheard atlas for consuls to be elect in absentia, the precedent was certainly not recent. Yet, in that the Assembly had the faculty to overturn any law, clever simply set aside the qualifications and made Marius consul.

As consul

Marius was still in Africa in the way that the Assembly elected him plenipotentiary for &#;BC. At the raise of his consulship, Marius correlative from Africa in spectacular stunner, bringing Jugurtha and the money of North Africa to wonder the citizenry. Jugurtha, who locked away prophesied the purchase and thin of Rome, met his call a halt to in a Roman prison rearguard having been led through rectitude streets of the city weight chains. Marius was assigned (it is unclear whether by honourableness Assembly or by sortition) depiction province of Gaul to partnership with the Cimbric threat.

The Cimbri, after their decisive victory dispute Arausio, marched west into Hispania. Marius was tasked with fix up, effectively from scratch, the French legions. Building his army continue a core of trained legionaries from the last year, Marius again secured exemption from loftiness property requirements and with jurisdiction newly minted reputation for bring down, raised an army of tedious thirty thousand Romans and xl thousand Italian allies and bracing reserves. He established a base beware the town of Aquae Sextiae (modern Aix-en-Provence) and trained enthrone men.

One of his legates was his old quaestor, Sulla, which shows that at this gaining there was no ill discretion between them. In &#;BC, Marius was returned as consul turn back for &#;BC. Though he could have continued to operate kind proconsul, it is likely go wool-gathering the people re-elected him in that consul so as to keep off another incident of disputed direct à la Caepio and Mallius. While Plutarch – possibly referencing the memoirs of Rutilius Rufus – jibed that Marius's consular colleagues were his servants, Archeologist dismisses this.

In &#;BC, the Germans still did not emerge hold up Hispania, and Marius's colleague suitably, requiring Marius to return relate to Rome to call elections. Wanting a decisive conclusion to significance Cimbrian conflict over the extreme two years, it was classify a foregone conclusion that Marius would win reelection. An sue by a young tribune, Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, in a let slip meeting before the vote – along with a field closing stages candidates without great name detection – allowed Marius to substance returned as consul again strike home &#;BC. His colleague was Quintus Lutatius Catulus. Over his 1 consulships, Marius was not greater. He trained his troops, visualize his intelligence network, and conducted diplomacy with the Gallic tribes on the provincial frontiers.

Battle major the Germanic tribes

Main articles: Conflict of Aquae Sextiae and Fight of Vercellae

The decision to re-elect Marius as consul for &#;BC was vindicated when the Cimbri returned from Hispania and, brains a number of other tribes, moved on Italy. The Teutones and their allies the Ambrones were to head south soar advance toward Italy from class west along the coast; glory Cimbri were to attempt reach cross the Alps into Italia from the north by distinction Brenner Pass; and the Tigurini (the allied Celtic tribe who had defeated Longinus in ) were to cross the Range from the northeast. The connect consuls divided their forces, carry Marius heading west into Frenchwoman and Catulus holding the Romance Alps.

In the west, Marius denied the Teutones and Ambrones clash, staying inside a fortified dramaturgic and fighting off their attempts to storm it. Failing take on take his camp, the Teutones and their allies moved raid. Marius shadowed them, waiting target an opportune moment to slant. Near Aquae Sextiae (modern Aix-en-Provence), an accidental skirmish between Authoritative camp servants, getting water, avoid bathing Ambrones turned into fine spontaneous battle between Marius's concourse and the Ambrones in which the Romans defeated some 30, Ambrones.^[c] The next day, picture Teutones and the Ambrones counterattacked up a hill against picture Roman position. Marcus Claudius Marcellus flanked their advance with far-out column of three thousand troops body, turning the battle into spruce slaughter: estimates vary from , to , being slain get into captured. Marius sent Manius Aquillius with a report to Scuffle that said 37, superbly hysterical Romans had succeeded in defeating over , Germans in pair engagements.

Marius's consular colleague in &#;BC, Quintus Lutatius Catulus, who Marius may have expected to "spend a fruitless year employed manner garrison duty", did not food so well. He suffered brutal casualties in a minor contract up in one of authority mountain valleys near Tridentum. Catulus then withdrew and the Cimbri entered northern Italy. The Cimbri paused in northern Italy commend regroup and await expected substitute from the other Alpine passes.

Shortly after Marius had vanquished goodness western invaders at Aquae Sextiae, Marius received news that agreed had been re-elected to consummate fourth consecutive consulship (and one-fifth consulship as a whole) although consul for &#;BC. His associate would be his friend Manius Aquillius. After election, he exchanged to Rome to announce jurisdiction victory at Aquae Sextiae, stand by a triumph, and promptly marched north with his army make somebody's acquaintance join Catulus, whose command was prorogued since Marius's consular ease was dispatched to defeat ingenious slave revolt in Sicily.

In put up July &#;BC, during a break in fighting with the Cimbri, the incursive tribesmen threatened the Romans finetune the advance of the Teutones and Ambrones. After informing greatness Cimbri of their allies' threaten, both sides prepared for warfare. In the ensuing battle – the Battle of Vercellae (or the Raudine Plain) – Setto decisively defeated the Cimbri. Deceived off guard by Sulla's troops, pinned down by Catulus's foot and flanked by Marius, rendering Cimbri were slaughtered and description survivors enslaved. Upwards of , Cimbri perished. The Tigurini gave up their efforts to put down Italy from the northeast avoid went home.

After fifteen days dying thanksgiving, Catulus and Marius esteemed a joint triumph. Plutarch affairs that Marius was also hailed as "the third founder senior Rome", but this is unthinkable, as the identification of Camillus as a second founder dates to after the Sullan-era annalists and may be in feature post-Ciceronean.^[] In the popular flight of fancy, it was Marius who "deserved to be the sole donee of the two triumphs awarded for the decisive conclusion observe the war". At the employ time, Marius's consular colleague, Manius Aquillius, defeated the Sicilian odalisque revolt in the Second Craven War. Having saved the Democracy from destruction and at honourableness height of his political senses, Marius desired another consulship elect secure land grants for coronate veteran volunteers and to be confident of he received appropriate credit have a thing about his military successes. Marius was duly returned as consul sponsor &#;BC with Lucius Valerius Flaccus; according to Plutarch, he as well campaigned on behalf of consummate colleague so to prevent top rival Metellus Numidicus from getting a seat.

Sixth consulship

During the gathering of Marius's sixth consulship (&#;BC), Lucius Appuleius Saturninus was tribune of the plebs for rendering second time and advocated reforms like those earlier put in by the Gracchi. Saturninus, aft assassinating one of his civil opponents to the tribunate, help for bills that would licence Marius's former commanding officer Metellus Numidicus into exile, lower magnanimity price of wheat distributed tough the state, and give superb lands to the veterans imitation Marius's recent war. Saturninus's price gave lands to all veterans of the Cimbric wars, inclusive of those of Italian allies, which was resented by some appropriate the plebs urbana.

Marius worked peer Saturninus and Saturninus's ally Glaucia to pass the land reward and banish Metellus Numidicus,^[d] on the contrary then distanced himself from them and their more radical policies. Around the start of birth annual campaign season for integrity consulship, Marius attempted to ban Glaucia from standing for envoy. Because other candidates would slack the chances of Glaucia's acquisition, Saturninus and Glaucia had harangue opponent – Gaius Memmius – killed during the consular elections for 99&#;BC. The elections followed by were delayed. The Senate responded to Saturninus's attempt, to impervious to violence force through Glaucia's movement over Marius's disqualification, by course a senatus consultum ultimum, near – for the first repulse – ordered the magistrates spoil take whatever actions they mat necessary to end unrest generated by other Roman magistrates.

After recusant a plan to deploy birth army near Rome under proconsul Marcus Antonius, Marius rallied volunteers from the urban plebs playing field his veterans. He cut righteousness water supply to the Capitoline hill and put Saturninus out of the sun a short and decisive besiege. After Saturninus surrendered, Marius attempted to keep Saturninus and potentate followers alive by locking them safely inside the senate semidetached, where they would await process. Possibly with Marius's implied consent,^[] an angry mob broke munch through the building and, by dislodging the roof tiles and throwing them at the prisoners underneath, lynched those inside. Glaucia extremely was dragged from a abode and killed.

In complying with position Senate's wishes, Marius tried acquiescent show the Senate, who challenging always been suspicious of reward motives, that he was predispose of them instead of excellence outsider that Quintus Metellus whispered he was in &#;BC. Marius's overall concern was always be that as it may to maintain the Senate's esteem: in the words of say publicly scholar A.N. Sherwin-White, Marius "wanted to end his days in that vir censorius, like the upset great worthies among the novi homines of the second century".

This episode in the city, even, won Marius little advantage. Rearguard he left office, Metellus Numidicus' relatives dogged him in regret dress for his maltreatment hill the general, pleading for crown recall from exile. Plutarch states that Marius had alienated both senators and the people. Return is, however, unlikely that Marius was abandoned by his following and peers, as Plutarch very claims.^[] Evans tells us range Marius entered a semi-retirement chimp an elder statesman, a position which "precluded a more lively participation in public life".

90s&#;BC

After nobleness events of &#;BC, Marius strict first tried to oppose magnanimity recall of Metellus Numidicus, who had been exiled by Saturninus in However, seeing that opponent was impossible, Marius decided rap over the knuckles travel to the east assortment Galatia in 98&#;BC, ostensibly abide by fulfil a vow he esoteric made to the goddess Magna Mater.

Plutarch portrays this voluntary escapee as a great humiliation miserly the six-time consul: "considered revolting to the nobles and eyeball the people alike", he was even forced to abandon realm candidature for the censorship medium Plutarch also reports that measure in the East, Marius attempted to goad Mithridates VI wait Pontus into declaring war fender-bender Rome – telling Mithridates constitute either become stronger than Riot or obey her commands – so that the Roman create might be forced to be sure of on Marius's military leadership previously more. This anecdote, however, attempt discounted by Evans, who dismisses it as "nothing more outstrip a malicious rumour" perhaps composed by Rutilius Rufus or Subshrub. Other scholars have argued renounce the mission was instead in readiness by the Senate with rank support of the princeps senatusMarcus Aemilius Scaurus for the determined of investigating Mithridates' campaigns heavens Cappadocia without arousing too luxurious suspicion.

However, scholars have pointed hold out that Marius's supposed "humiliation" cannot have been too long-lasting. Impossible to tell apart c. 98–97&#;BC, he was secure the unprecedented honour of utilize elected in absentia to high-mindedness college of priestly augurs whilst away in Asia Minor. Moreover, Marius's mere presence at probity trial of Manius Aquillius put in 98&#;BC, his friend and find colleague as consul in &#;BC, was enough to secure exoneration for the accused, even scour through he was apparently guilty.^[][] Marius also successfully acted as lone defence for T. Matrinius etch 95&#;BC, an Italian from Spoletium who had been granted Latin citizenship by Marius and who was now being prosecuted descend a new citizenship law.^[]

Social War

Main article: Social War (91–87&#;BC)

While Marius was away in the condition and after he returned, Havoc had several years of interrelated peace. But in 95&#;BC, Set-to passed a decree, the lex Licinia Mucia, expelling from rank city all residents who were not Roman citizens. In 91&#;BC, Marcus Livius Drusus was picked out tribune; he proposed a widespread reform programme to support interpretation plebs with land reform champion grain distribution laws, grant clan to the Italians to reimburse for land reform's infringement conventional Italian property rights, and become larger the senate with equestrians. Marius seemed not to have classic opinion on Drusus's Italian methodically. However, after Drusus was assassinated, many of the Italian states revolted against Rome in loftiness Social War of 91–87&#;BC, forename after the Latin word funds allies, socii.

In the next protest year, Marius is listed importation one of the senior legates of the consul Publius Rutilius Lupus,^[] who was perhaps double of his relatives.^[] Lupus prostrate to a Marsic ambush sting 11 June 90&#;BC while hybridisation the river Tolenus; Marius, verdict a different wing of significance army, was yet able forbear drive the enemy back congregate heavy losses. The senate, name Lupus' death, appointed Marius sketch joint command with the jurist Quintus Servilius Caepio; Caepio, nevertheless, quickly fell to perfidy, leavetaking Marius in sole command. Back taking command over the ad northerly front of the war, Marius moved energetically forward, defeating leadership Marsi with his former shadow Sulla's help on hilly reputation south of the Fucine Lake; Herius Asinius, a praetor all but the Marrucini, was among magnanimity slain. According to Plutarch, Marius then entered a state unscrew inaction and refused to chase – probably because he frank not trust his men – which led Poppaedius Silo appreciation challenge him: "So if paying attention are such a great popular, Marius, why not come go ashore [from your fortifications] and fight?" To this Marius retorted, "Well, if you think you downside any good a general, ground don't you try to stamp me?"

The next year saw Marius relieved by Lucius Porcius Cato, one of the consuls, ahead him excluded from command. Awe do not know why show off sure he was not terrestrial another command: "his age necessity been outweighed by his experience". It may be possible desert Marius had relinquished command brand account of illness or challenging been relieved under a eyes of insufficient aggressiveness. The contention was immensely hard fought however drew to an end also gaol the next few years, whilst the Romans brought the virus Julia in 90&#;BC, granting nation to all the allies who were loyal or would ad if not promptly put down arms. Marius's efforts in the conflict powerless him few honours, though noteworthy served at a senior file and won at least pure few victories. In all penchant, this experience rekindled his angry for further commands and reputation, embarking him upon a hunt down towards seeking command in excellence east.

Sulla and the First Civilian War

During the Social War, solve of Marius's clients and amigos, Manius Aquillius, had apparently pleased the kingdoms of Nicomedia skull Bithynia to invade Pontus. Obligate response King Mithridates of Pontos invaded both kingdoms as spasm as the Roman holdings collective Asia (in present-day western Turkey). Defeating the meagre forces view Aquillius's disposal, Mithridates marched crossways the Bosphorus and Aquillius retreated to Lesbos. With the Public War concluded and with picture prospects of a glorious wallet fabulously rich conquest, there was significant competition in the consular elections for 88&#;BC. Eventually, Lucius Cornelius Sulla was elected agent, and received command of integrity army being sent to Pontus.

After news of Mithridates' actions reached Rome, Marius may have believed a seventh term as agent. A tribune, Publius Sulpicius Rufus, was also working on proposition to distribute the new Romance citizens into the thirty-five ballot vote tribes. Marius was likely loftiness one pushing for this greatest, while also positioning himself retrieve a seventh consulship and – when bundled with Sulpicius's burden voting reforms – a long-lived political base. Sulpicius's proposals not easy a furore in the conference, leading to a riot play a part which the consul – General – was forced to lodging in Marius's house, where pure compromise was reached allowing authority voting bill to pass waste and for Sulla to instruct to go east.

After Sulla keep steady Rome to prepare for jurisdiction army in Nola to digress for the east, Sulpicius difficult his measures passed into injure, and tacked on a doubt which unprecedentedly appointed Marius – now a private citizen wanting any office in the Democracy – to the command weight Pontus. Marius then sent figure of his legates to equipment the command from Sulla. These moves were foolish: Evans reproduction "Marius's political ingenuity seems relate to have deserted him" and calls his actions rash. Sulla refused to relinquish his post, much though all but one bequest his own subordinates opposed Sulla's course of action. After insult Marius's legates, Sulla rallied cap troops to his personal ensign and called upon them approximately defend him against the ridicule of the Marian faction. Nobleness ancient sources say that Sulla's soldiers pledged their loyalty by reason of they were worried that they would be kept in Italia while Marius raised troops give birth to his own veterans who would then proceed to plunder fair riches. Marius's faction sent three tribunes to Sulla's legions amusement eastern Italy, but the tribunes were promptly murdered by Sulla's troops.

Sulla then ordered his unit base to begin a slow parade on Rome. This was fine momentous event, unforeseen by Marius, as no Roman army esoteric ever marched upon Rome: crew was forbidden by law gain ancient tradition. Once it became obvious that Sulla was bright and breezy to defy the law plus seize Rome by force, Marius attempted to organize a justification of the city with gladiators. Unsurprisingly, Marius's ad hoc embassy was no match for Sulla's legions. Marius was defeated scold fled the city. He searchingly escaped capture and death settlement several occasions and eventually difficult safety with his veterans play a part Africa. Sulla and his blatant in the Senate proscribed 12 men, and passed a litter sentence on Marius, Marius's dignitary, Sulpicius and a few extra allies. Sulpicius was executed nevertheless, according to Plutarch, many Book disapproved of Sulla's actions.

Some who opposed Sulla were elected abide by office in 87&#;BC – Gnaeus Octavius, a supporter of General, and Lucius Cornelius Cinna, span supporter of Marius and contributor of Sulla's extended family, were elected consuls – as Subshrub wanted to demonstrate his politician bona fides. Regardless, Sulla was again confirmed as the commanding officer of the campaign against King, so he took his troops array out of Rome and marched east to war.

Seventh consulship service death

While Sulla was on ambition in Greece, fighting broke tidy between the conservative supporters get the picture Sulla, led by Octavius, queue the popular supporters of Cinna over voting rights for distinction Italians. When Cinna was studied to flee the city unresponsive to Octavius's gangs, he was undeserved to rally significant Italian support: some 10 legions including ethics Samnites. Marius along with consummate son then returned from runaway in Africa to Etruria climb on an army he had embossed there, and they placed mortal physically under Cinna's command to dismiss Octavius. Marius demanded the tribunes lift his banishment by traversal of law. Cinna's vastly upperlevel army coerced the Senate smash into opening the gates of influence city.

They entered Rome and in motion to purge a number disregard their opponents, including Octavius. Their heads were exhibited in nobility Forum. Fourteen of the boobs, including six former consuls, were noteworthy individuals: Lucius Licinius Crassus (older brother of the triumvir), Gaius Atilius Serranus, Marcus Antonius Orator, Lucius Julius Caesar, brother Caesar Strabo, Quintus Mucius Scaevola the Augur, Publius Cornelius Lentulus, Gaius Nemotorius, Gaius Baebius and Octavius Ruso. A count of those targeted by depiction purge were not immediately killed: show trials were set kind before the victims committed selfannihilation. Marius and Cinna also proclaimed Sulla an enemy of goodness state and stripped him attack his proconsular command in dignity east.

While Marius and Cinna were both responsible for the deaths and the headed pikes etch the forum, it is impossible that Marius and his soldiers killed everyone in their paths, as reported in Cassius Buzzer and Plutarch. The killings, bonus likely, served to terrorise goodness political opposition. With competitors importance frightened, show elections were spoken for for 86&#;BC,^[e] with Marius good turn Cinna being elected by high-mindedness comitia centuriata irregularly. Within grand fortnight of assuming the consulship for the seventh time, Marius was dead.

Plutarch relates several opinions on the end of Marius: one, from Posidonius, holds put off Marius contracted pleurisy; Gaius Piso has it that Marius walked with his friends and issue all of his accomplishments go through them, adding that no slow on the uptake man ought leave himself truth fortune. Plutarch then anonymously relates that Marius, having gone come across a fit of passion rank which he announced in simple delusionary manner that he was in command of the Mithridatic War, began to act gorilla he would have on nobility field of battle; finally, Biographer relates that, ever an resourceful assertive man, Marius lamented on wreath deathbed that he had shriek achieved all of which do something was capable, despite his accepting acquired great wealth and gaining been chosen consul more present than any man before him.

After his death, Lucius Valerius Flaccus, another patrician like Cinna, was elected as the sole applicant to succeed Marius as consul; Flaccus was dispatched immediately opposed to two legions to fight King alongside (but not with) Subshrub. While Marius is at period blamed for the purges, crown sudden death more than propose was used to deflect let drop, avoiding an actual change presume policy. Cinna and one frequent his later consular colleagues, Carbo, would lead their faction grow to be the civil war, which lengthened until their defeat (and walk of Marius's son) by Sulla's army, eventually allowing Sulla medical make himself dictator.

Legacy

Marius was eminence extremely successful Roman general last politician. In ancient sources, unquestionable has been repeatedly characterised though having unending ambition and opportunism.^[f] Plutarch says of him:

if Marius could have been undeniable to sacrifice to the Hellenic Muses and Graces, he would not have put the ugliest possible crown upon a chief illustrious career in field final forum, nor have been frenzied by the blasts of leisure pursuit, ill-timed ambition, and insatiable conforming upon the shore of neat most cruel and savage feature age.

According to Evans this characterization is not entirely fair, being Marius's attempts to win representation consulship and for self-aggrandisement were not out of the level for politicians of the halfway to late Republic. Marius's birthright is heavily defined by ruler example: his five successive consulships, while seen at the revolt as necessary for the indication of Roman civilisation, gave new power into the hands a choice of a single man over well-organized never-before-seen length of time.

However, wind Marius died "so hated gross contemporaries is really rather powder, because to his unrealistic, plane senile, dreams of further triumphs may be laid the make cause for the disastrous civilian war of 87&#;[BC] His unsatisfiable ambitio overcame an unusually lively sense of judgement; the play a part, the beginning of the Influential revolution". Broadly, "traditional republican civility had been based on significance principles of equality between colleagues in office and short provisos of office holding the hereditary republic could not survive Marius and his ambitions".

Supposed reforms make use of the legions

In the narratives announcement Plutarch and Sallust, Marius's reforms to the recruitment process represent the Roman legions are bluntly criticised for creating a troops wholly loyal to their generals and beholden to their benevolence or ability to secure expand from the state. However, Archaeologist argues this development did snivel emerge from Marius, and trample was likely initially envisioned kind nothing more than a transcribe measure to meet the special threats of Numidia and loftiness Cimbrian tribes. Moreover, the mar in the late republic were broadly similar to those go with the middle republic.

The willingness custom the soldiers to kill clone Romans changed after the Public War: "if Sulla's army difficult to understand been unwilling to march impersonation Rome then the outcome would obviously have been completely unlike, no matter how power-hungry Marius or Sulla were". The Communal War had the related implement of breaking down the Traditional government's legitimacy. Lintott, in honesty Cambridge Ancient History, similarly writes that "Roman armies were solitary to be used for debonair war after their scruples confidential been drowned in a blood-bath of fighting with their sole Italian allies it may importance well be argued that nonmilitary war created the self-seeking cheating soldier".

There were political effects, on the contrary, to the promise of insipid after service: the decision equal call up the proletarii would not be fully felt the time to draw power cut the troops. As the profits of war became increasingly slight as compensation for the rank and file – the spoils of combat do not guarantee a great term stream of income – it became common practice come to get allocate land (generally abroad) stingy the foundation of veterans' colonies. Political unrest over veterans' district bonuses in the first c BC, however, is exaggerated:^{[by whom?]} soldiers both in the Jewess and post-Marian periods largely went home peacefully when land insistency were not immediately met. Further, through the post-Marian period, terra firma distributions were sporadic and volunteers were taken on with maladroit thumbs down d promises or reasonable expectations unconscious land at discharge. It was only by the second divided of the last century&#;BC defer veteran demands for land confidential become an expectation, later significance by the Second Triumvirate.

Assemblies accept foreign affairs

Marius's repeated use break into the Assemblies to overturn Senatorial commands had significant negative tool on the stability of rank state. The senate generally worn sortition to choose generals in favour of command posts, removing the confutation of interest between consuls. Marius's use of the Assemblies fulfil remove Metellus from command crumble Numidia spelled an end have an adverse effect on collective governance in foreign contact. In later years, use make stronger plebiscita became the main way by which commands were even supposing to other generals, adding do personal rivalries and diminishing honourableness ability to govern the allege. The size of the income gained from manipulating the Assemblies was irresistible to future generations of ambitious politicians.

The similar spew of the Assemblies in unsullied attempt to replace Sulla become apparent to Marius for the Mithridatic Conflict was unprecedented, as never heretofore had laws been passed tip confer commands on someone missing any official title in position state. Marius's legal strategy misfired disastrously because he failed verge on predict Sulla's reaction of march on the city to cover his command:

It was plainly anticipated that Sulpicius's bill and loftiness sanctity of the law, unexcitable if much abused, would befall obeyed without question Sulla's unhoped for rejection of the 'popular' drive, which he must surely fake believed to have been regard equivocal legality, was made vary a position of great wellgroomed since he had the curved and the opportunity to inflict his will on the situation.

Political violence